Since the Portuguese arrived in Timor-Leste in the early 16th century, the island nation has seen both tragic and chaotic modern history. Following centuries of conflict between the Portuguese, Dutch, and Timorese kingdoms over the island’s sovereignty, the island was finally divided according to the conditions of the 1859 Lisbon Treaty, drawing a line between Portuguese Timor and the Dutch East Indies.

With a rich history spanning centuries, Timor-Leste (East Timor) boasts a culture that was shaped by Neolithic settlements discovered in caves in Tutuala as early as 35,000 years ago, followed by Asian migrants who brought agriculture. As time went on, Timor-Leste split into several small kingdoms, each with its own intricate hierarchical social structure, rules governing land use, tribute exchanges, and strategic marital alliances. However, conflicts between the various kinship groups disrupted the relatively stable patterns of land use and clan marriages.

On November 28, 1975, East Timor proclaimed its independence from Portugal; however, neighbouring Indonesia invaded the territory nine days later. For the next 24 years, the nation was a province of Indonesia. Over 200,000 Timorese people died during that period as a result of the systematic violence used by the Indonesian military, as well as related illnesses and starvation. Despite significant infrastructural investments made by Indonesia during its occupation of East Timor, discontent persisted.

By October 1996, the Timorese leaders, Bishop Ximenes Belo and José Ramos Horta, had been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, adding to the growing aggressiveness of the independence movement and putting Indonesia in an increasingly precarious situation. Then, in January 1999, Timor-Leste was granted “wide-ranging autonomy” by Indonesia. Not long after, strong resistance from the Timorese people and coordinated actions at the UN led to the 1999 independence referendum. In the face of a brutal campaign of intimidation, 78.5% of Timorese voters proudly cast ballots in favour of independence.

The United Nations Transitional Administration in Timor-Leste (UNTAET) was created by the UN Security Council on October 25, 1999, as a comprehensive peacekeeping mission with many roles tasked with managing Timor-Leste during its transition to independence. Timor-Leste held its first free elections in 2001, choosing representatives to draft a new constitution. After regaining its independence in 2002, the nation emerged as the first new nation of the third millennium and the newest democracy in the world. Since then, Timor-Leste has placed a strong emphasis on national development within a period of relative peace.

The following are some significant dates in the history of Timor-Leste:

1600s: Portuguese establish a trading post on the island after being driven from other islands by the rival Dutch, using the island as a source of sandalwood

1749: Timor is split into Portuguese and Dutch territories, with the Portuguese taking the eastern half; 1800s: East Timor receives little Portuguese investment until the late 19th century, even after Portugal establishes actual control over the interior of its colony

1939: World War Two breaks out

1941: Allies briefly occupy Dili.

1942: East Timor and the surrounding area are taken over by Japanese soldiers. East Timorese volunteers and Allied forces launch a protracted guerrilla struggle in the rugged interior. There are 40,000–70,000 civilian deaths.

Early in 1943:the Japanese drive out the Australian and Allied forces. Japan remained in charge until 1945. Portugal starts investing in the territory in the 1950s, but economic growth is still modest.

1974: The Lisbon coup results in a new Portuguese government that launches the decolonisation program.

1975: The Portuguese government relocates to the Atauro offshore island. Five journalists from Australia were slain near the West Timor border, purportedly by Indonesian forces. Following a brief civil conflict, East Timor is unilaterally declared independent by the left-wing Fretilin party.

Using its struggle against communism as a pretext, Indonesia invades. It annexs territory in a manner that the UN finds unacceptable. A quarter of the population, or over 200,000 people, perished from sickness, starvation, and fighting that followed the invasion and the Indonesian occupation.

1981: The military branch of Fretilin, known as Falintil (military Forces of National Liberation of East Timor), is led by Xanana Gusmao.

1991: More than 250 persons were killed in the Santa Cruz cemetery massacre in Dili when soldiers opened fire on mourners attending a funeral for a supporter of Fretilin.

1992: Gusmao is apprehended close to Dili. He was found guilty of subversion in 1993 and sentenced to life in prison, which was subsequently lowered.

1996: The East Timorese independence movement gained international attention when resistance leader Jose Ramos-Horta and acting bishop of Dili, Carlos Belo, were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

1998: Suharto, the president of Indonesia, steps down. Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie, who proposes that the area might receive special status within Indonesia, has taken his place.

1999: If the people of East Timor reject autonomy, Indonesia says it will take independence into consideration. Gusmao went under house arrest from the Jakarta prison. Gusmao gives the guerrillas the order to resume the independence war in reaction to the anti-independence activists’ growing acts of violence. An agreement is signed between Portugal and Indonesia to give East Timorese voters a say in their future. When 78% of voters choose independence, anti-independence militias start up again with their terror campaign. UN assumes control and gets the region ready for independence. A peacekeeping team headed by Australians arrives.

East Timor gains independence in 2002. Two agreements intended to improve relations are signed between Indonesia and East Timor. President Xanana Gusmao becomes victorious.

2005 – During Indonesian President Yudhoyono’s first visit to Dili since taking office, East Timor and Indonesia sign a historic border accord. Australian peacekeepers still on duty depart.

2006: An agreement to split anticipated profits from Timor Sea oil and gas reserves is signed by Australia and East Timor. Discussions about a disputed maritime border are put on hold. The UN is given a report on purported crimes committed during Indonesia’s 24-year rule. It concludes that over 100,000 East Timorese lost their lives as a direct result of the occupation.

2006: As confrontations involving ex-soldiers turn into more extensive factional violence, foreign forces move into Dili in an attempt to re-establish order. Establishment of the UN Integrated Mission in East Timor (Unmit), a non-military peacekeeping mission.

2007: Jose Ramos-Horta, the prime minister, wins the presidency.

2008: Renegade troops shoot President Ramos-Horta in the stomach. Alfredo Reinado, the rebel leader, is murdered in the assault.

2009 – Indonesia claims that a war crimes investigation against five Australian journalists killed during the Indonesian invasion of East Timor in 1975 could damage relations with Australia.

2010: A court finds rebels guilty of trying to kill the president in 2008 and sentences them to up to 16 years in prison. Later, President Ramos-Horta commutes their sentences or pardons them.

2011: East Timor files an Asean membership application. The UN’s peacekeeping operation expires in 2012. 2017 saw the resolution of a ten-year dispute over Australia’s maritime border with East Timor through a groundbreaking agreement.